I. Clauses of contrast

although, even though

We can use although/even though at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence followed by a clause (subject + verb). We NEVER use a comma after although or event though.

• Although/Even though we had a bad game, we won.
• We won, although/even though we had a bad game.

however

We use however to connect two different sentences. We normally use however after a full stop (.) or a semi-colon (;). However should ALWAYS be followed by a comma.

• We didn’t like the hotel. However, we had a fantastic time.
• We went to the beach; however, the weather wasn’t perfect.

despite / in spite of

Despite and in spite of are normally followed by a noun or a –ing verb. They can go at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence.

• Despite/In spite of the rain, we went to the concert.
• They arrived despite/in spite of leaving very early.

We can use a clause (subject + verb) after despite/in spite of + the fact that.

• We went out despite/in spite of the fact that it was raining.

II. Clauses of purpose

to + infinitive

The most common way to express purpose in English is to + infinitive.

• The student worked hard to pass the test.

in order to/so as to + infinitive

In order to or so as to + infinitive are more common in formal English, mainly in writing. The negative forms are in order not to and so as not to + infinitive.

• We were asked to stay in order to finish the project.
• He left home early in order not to be late.
• Use a plastic hammer so as to avoid damage.
• They walked quietly so as not to wake up the children.

so that + clause

We can also use so that + subject + verb to express purpose. We normally use a modal verb with this connector. (could, can, would, etc.)

• We left early so that we could park near the centre.
• He made some flashcards so that it would be easier for his mum to remember the instructions.

for + noun

We can also use for + noun to express purpose.

• We went to the bar for a drink.
• Would you like to go the the park for a run?

III. Clauses of reason

When we want to explain the reason why something happened or why someone did something, we use a clause of reason introduced by a conjunction (as, since, because) or a noun phrase introduced by because of or due to.

because

We use because before a clause (subject + verb). It can be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence (at the end is more common). A comma is used when the clause of reason is at the beginning of the sentence.

• We didn’t go because it was raining heavily.
• Because the event was cancelled, they lost their deposits.

as/since

We use as and since in a very similar way to because. They are followed by subject + verb and can be used at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. However, as and since are more formal expressions, and more common in written than in spoken English.

• The government urged people to stay indoors since/as more rain is forecast for the entire weekend.
• As/Since the roads were blocked, the victims had to be rescued by helicopter.

because of

We use because of before a noun.

• The concert was postponed because of the heavy rain.

due to

Due to means ‘because of’ although it is more formal. We also use due to before a noun.

• The event was cancelled due to lack of interest.
• I couldn’t enjoy the meal due to their constant arguing.